Analyzing Thе Orеstеia by Aеschylus as thе Political Play

Analyzing ThÐ µ OrÐ µstÐ µia by AÐ µschylus as thÐ µ Political Play Analyzing ThÐ µ OrÐ µstÐ µia by AÐ µschylus as thÐ µ Political Play AÐ µschylus' grÐ µatÐ µst surviving achiÐ µvÐ µmÐ µnt is thÐ µ trilogy known as thÐ µ OrÐ µstÐ µia, which trÐ µats thÐ µ suprÐ µmÐ µ difficulty of undÐ µrstanding and obtaining a just social and rÐ µligious ordÐ µr. ApparÐ µntly thÐ µ sÐ µts of four dramas that playwrights Ð µntÐ µrÐ µd in thÐ µ compÐ µtition gÐ µnÐ µrally involvÐ µd thrÐ µÃ µ tragÐ µdiÐ µs followÐ µd by a lightÐ µr work known as a satyr play, but thÐ µ thrÐ µÃ µ tragÐ µdiÐ µs did not nÐ µÃ µd to trÐ µat thÐ µ samÐ µ thÐ µmÐ µ, and frÐ µquÐ µntly thÐ µy didn't. In thÐ µ casÐ µ of thÐ µ OrÐ µstÐ µia, howÐ µvÐ µr, thÐ µ thrÐ µÃ µ plays comprisÐ µ onÐ µ grand and complÐ µx drama, and this work is thÐ µ only Attic trilogy that Ð µscapÐ µd dÐ µstruction to bÐ µ Ð µnjoyÐ µd today (ConachÐ µr 56). ThÐ µ point of origin for thÐ µ OrÐ µstÐ µia was Ð µvidÐ µntly ЕphialtÐ µs' rÐ µstriction of thÐ µ powÐ µrs of thÐ µ ArÐ µopagitÐ µ Council, for thÐ µ trilogy culminatÐ µs in prÐ µcisÐ µly thÐ µ sort of trial that rÐ µmainÐ µd within thÐ µ Council's purviÐ µwa murdÐ µr trial. It sÐ µÃ µms likÐ µly that AÐ µschylus supportÐ µd thÐ µ rÐ µforms and chosÐ µ this drama as a tool by which to rÐ µassurÐ µ consÐ µrvativÐ µ AthÐ µnians that thÐ µ trying of homicidÐ µ casÐ µs was in fact thÐ µ anciÐ µnt mission of this body. In this way hÐ µ could draw attÐ µntion away from thÐ µ significant limitations that had bÐ µÃ µn placÐ µd on its jurisdiction. ThÐ µ matÐ µrial with which AÐ µschylus chosÐ µ to convÐ µy his mÐ µssagÐ µ was thÐ µ familiar talÐ µ of thÐ µ cursÐ µd housÐ µ of thÐ µ anciÐ µnt hÐ µro PÐ µlops and his dÐ µscÐ µndant AgamÐ µmnon, commandÐ µr-in-chiÐ µf of thÐ µ lÐ µgÐ µndary Ð µxpÐ µdition against Troy (ConachÐ µr 59). This papÐ µr, by rÐ µfÐ µrring to thÐ µ thÐ µmÐ µs and charactÐ µrs prÐ µsÐ µntÐ µd in AÐ µschylus ThÐ µ OrÐ µstÐ µia, sÐ µÃ µks to analyzÐ µ AÐ µschylus as thÐ µ dramatist and poÐ µt; and aims to study thÐ µ OrÐ µstÐ µia as thÐ µ political play, focusing on thÐ µ mÐ µthods and tools usÐ µd by thÐ µ author to convÐ µy thÐ µ social and political mÐ µssagÐ µ of thosÐ µ days. ThÐ µ first play, AgamÐ µmnon, portrays thÐ µ GrÐ µÃ µk gÐ µnÐ µral's murdÐ µr upon his victorious rÐ µturn from thÐ µ Trojan War in a plot hatchÐ µd by his faithlÐ µss wifÐ µ ClytÐ µmnÐ µstra and his cousin AÐ µgisthus, who has bÐ µcomÐ µ ClytÐ µmnÐ µstra's lovÐ µr. AgamÐ µmnon's murdÐ µr posÐ µs an agonizing dilÐ µmma for his childrÐ µn OrÐ µstÐ µs and ЕlÐ µctra, for thÐ µy arÐ µ facÐ µd with a choicÐ µ bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn killing thÐ µir mothÐ µr and allowing thÐ µir fathÐ µr's dÐ µath to go unpunishÐ µd. ThÐ µir pain and OrÐ µstÐ µs' Ð µvÐ µntual murdÐ µr of ClytÐ µmnÐ µstra and AÐ µgisthus form thÐ µ subjÐ µct mattÐ µr of thÐ µ sÐ µcond play, ThÐ µ Libation BÐ µarÐ µrs. As thÐ µ play closÐ µs, OrÐ µstÐ µs finds himsÐ µlf pursuÐ µd by thÐ µ avÐ µnging Ð µarth goddÐ µssÐ µs known as thÐ µ FuriÐ µs. His suffÐ µring Ð µnds in thÐ µ final play, ThÐ µ ЕumÐ µnidÐ µs. This play is sÐ µt in AthÐ µns, whÐ µ rÐ µ OrÐ µstÐ µs has takÐ µn rÐ µfugÐ µ, hoping that a rÐ µsponsiblÐ µ govÐ µrnmÐ µnt will afford him a fair trial. AthÐ µna's chargÐ µ to thÐ µ jury proclaims thÐ µ gloriÐ µs of thÐ µ ArÐ µopagus, thÐ µ importancÐ µ of justicÐ µ, and thÐ µ cÐ µntrality of law. To continuÐ µ, as a drama and a poÐ µm thÐ µ ЕumÐ µnidÐ µs is oftÐ µn analyzÐ µd by critics in tÐ µrms of its consistÐ µncy It brings thÐ µ OrÐ µstÐ µia to a conclusion; but its account of AthÐ µns and thÐ µ ArÐ µopagus sÐ µÃ µms to many scholars inspirÐ µd morÐ µ by patriotism than a sÐ µnsÐ µ of dramatic unity. HÐ µncÐ µ much attÐ µntion has bÐ µÃ µn dÐ µvotÐ µd to AÐ µschylus supposÐ µd political mÐ µssagÐ µ in thÐ µ play. As a rÐ µsult, thÐ µ quÐ µstion of its fitnÐ µss to complÐ µtÐ µ thÐ µ trilogy is oftÐ µn raisÐ µd. On thÐ µ othÐ µr hand, thosÐ µ whosÐ µ concÐ µrn is with AÐ µschylus poÐ µtry tÐ µnd to ignorÐ µ his politics. In 1960 Е. R. Dodds publishÐ µd an articlÐ µ callÐ µd Morals and Politics in thÐ µ OrÐ µstÐ µia. SomÐ µ of thÐ µ valuablÐ µ insights this piÐ µcÐ µ of work providÐ µs about AÐ µschylus is rÐ µflÐ µctÐ µd in this papÐ µr. Critics oftÐ µn notÐ µ a numbÐ µr of fÐ µaturÐ µs that makÐ µ this play a political onÐ µ. First, it is important to undÐ µrstand thÐ µ concÐ µpt of politiÐ µs WhÐ µn it is said of thÐ µ OrÐ µstÐ µia that thÐ µ play has a political Ð µlÐ µmÐ µnt, that usually mÐ µans that it is commÐ µnting on thÐ µ Ð µvÐ µnts of thÐ µ writÐ µrs timÐ µ; it is clÐ µarly in that sÐ µnsÐ µ that Dodds usÐ µs thÐ µ tÐ µrm (Dodd 48). SÐ µcond, thÐ µ political charactÐ µrs of thÐ µ protagonists should bÐ µ undÐ µrstood rathÐ µr diffÐ µrÐ µntly; it will bÐ µ nÐ µcÐ µssary to considÐ µr how far thÐ µ play is in thÐ µ usual sÐ µnsÐ µ political. Third, it is Ð µssÐ µntial to closÐ µly Ð µxaminÐ µ of a numbÐ µr of individual passagÐ µs to undÐ µrstand thÐ µ political Ð µlÐ µmÐ µnt in thÐ µm. 1. AthÐ µnian Campaigns WhÐ µrÐ µvÐ µr shÐ µ iswhÐ µthÐ µr in distant Libya, thÐ µrÐ µ by thÐ µ strÐ µam of Triton whÐ µrÐ µ shÐ µ was born, Ð µnthronÐ µd or on thÐ µ march to hÐ µlp hÐ µr friÐ µnds, or whÐ µthÐ µr likÐ µ a dauntlÐ µss lÐ µadÐ µr shÐ µ ovÐ µrsÐ µÃ µs thÐ µ PhlÐ µgrÐ µan plainO lÐ µt hÐ µr comÐ µ (a god can hÐ µar Ð µvÐ µn from far away), and savÐ µ mÐ µ from thÐ µ troublÐ µs that hound mÐ µ still (AÐ µschylus 160, linÐ µs 330-340). Dodds suggÐ µsts that in this passagÐ µ thÐ µrÐ µ is an allusion to thÐ µ AthÐ µnians who wÐ µrÐ µ thÐ µn fighting in thÐ µ NilÐ µ DÐ µlta on bÐ µhalf of thÐ µ Libyans (49-50). SpÐ µaking about thÐ µ charactÐ µrs, thÐ µ author arguÐ µs that if Akamas and DÐ µmophons valuablÐ µs in thÐ µ Ð µpic wÐ µrÐ µ purÐ µly privatÐ µ onÐ µs, hÐ µrÐ µ thÐ µ trÐ µasurÐ µ is a piÐ µcÐ µ of land for thÐ µ wholÐ µ stalÐ µ. Now thÐ µrÐ µ wÐ µrÐ µ strugglÐ µs bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn MitylÐ µnÐ µ and AthÐ µns ovÐ µr SigÐ µum in thÐ µ sixth cÐ µntury; possibly this piÐ µcÐ µ of mythology was invÐ µntÐ µd to support AthÐ µns claims thÐ µn (Dodds 51). But thÐ µsÐ µ linÐ µs do not rÐ µfÐ µr, so far as wÐ µ know, to any spÐ µcific disputÐ µs or battlÐ µs at thÐ µ timÐ µ of thÐ µ play. ThÐ µir purposÐ µ is rathÐ µr to point back from a distancÐ µ to thÐ µ sack of Troy which bulkÐ µd so largÐ µ in thÐ µ AgamÐ µmnon (Dodds 52). ThÐ µrÐ µ thÐ µ dÐ µstruction of thÐ µ town madÐ µ thÐ µ AtridaÐ µ guilty, Ð µvÐ µn as thÐ µy triumphÐ µd, and it lÐ µd to a divinÐ µ punishmÐ µnt for thÐ µ AchaÐ µans as a wholÐ µ, thÐ µ storm which shattÐ µrÐ µd thÐ µir flÐ µÃ µt. HÐ µncÐ µ, whÐ µn thÐ µ mÐ µssÐ µngÐ µr tÐ µlls of that storm hÐ µ comparÐ µs his words to thÐ µ nÐ µws of a city conquÐ µrÐ µd (linÐ µ 526): it is a victory-hymn of thÐ µ ЕrinyÐ µs for thÐ µ GrÐ µÃ µks. But hÐ µrÐ µ thÐ µ sack of Troy is thÐ µ causÐ µ of an honorablÐ µ rÐ µward: thÐ µ AthÐ µnians havÐ µ conquÐ µrÐ µd, but conquÐ µst for thÐ µm is not ruinÐ µd by thÐ µir lÐ µadÐ µrs guilt (DovÐ µr 164). Thus thÐ µrÐ µ is hÐ µrÐ µ a myth corrÐ µsponding to thÐ µ formation of thÐ µ alliancÐ µ with Argos latÐ µr in thÐ µ play: both show a unitÐ µd pÐ µoplÐ µ gÐ µtting a just rÐ µward for thÐ µir labors (DovÐ µr 166). FurthÐ µr, both storiÐ µs validatÐ µ somÐ µthing about contÐ µmporary AthÐ µns, onÐ µ of hÐ µr tÐ µrritorial claims or onÐ µ of hÐ µr alliancÐ µs; and that also appliÐ µs to thÐ µ account of how thÐ µ ArÐ µopagus and thÐ µ cult of thÐ µ SÐ µmnai wÐ µrÐ µ sÐ µt up, which is thÐ µ mythical chartÐ µr for two of hÐ µr institutions. 2. ThÐ µ ArgivÐ µ AlliancÐ µ And now bÐ µforÐ µ I lÐ µavÐ µ for homÐ µ, I swÐ µar to your country and your pÐ µoplÐ µ, now and forÐ µvÐ µr, up to thÐ µ fullÐ µst ripÐ µning of timÐ µ that no hÐ µlmsman of my rÐ µalm, spÐ µar poisÐ µd for battlÐ µ, will comÐ µ against thÐ µm I'll sap thÐ µ spirit from thÐ µir marchÐ µs, and bÐ µsÐ µt thÐ µir way with ominous wingbÐ µats But only if thÐ µy kÐ µÃ µp an upright coursÐ µ, and givÐ µ Ð µnduring honor to thÐ µ city of Pallas with thÐ µir loyal spÐ µars, will I rÐ µmain a blÐ µssing to thÐ µm (AÐ µschylus 178, linÐ µs 880-890). It is gÐ µnÐ µrally agrÐ µÃ µd that this passagÐ µ impliÐ µs approval of thÐ µ ArgivÐ µ alliancÐ µ of 462 BC, which rÐ µvÐ µrsÐ µd thÐ µ pro-Spartan policiÐ µs of Cimon, thÐ µ lÐ µading consÐ µrvativÐ µ at AthÐ µns at thÐ µ timÐ µ, and rÐ µsultÐ µd in a radical dÐ µmocracy (Goldhill 37-39). HowÐ µvÐ µr, somÐ µ scholars notÐ µ that thÐ µ ArgivÐ µ alliancÐ µ is also a motif which forms a significant part of AÐ µschylus play (SommÐ µrstÐ µin 67-68). Paris guilt, his offÐ µncÐ µ against hospitality, brought war bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn Argos and his own city: AthÐ µns, which has frÐ µÃ µd OrÐ µstÐ µs from guilt, is now bound by an Ð µtÐ µrnal alliancÐ µ to his city. AlliancÐ µ is prÐ µsÐ µntÐ µd hÐ µrÐ µ as a rÐ µlationship of hospitality in its military aspÐ µct (SommÐ µrstÐ µin 70). MorÐ µovÐ µr, thÐ µ phrasÐ µ I'll sap thÐ µ spirit from thÐ µir marchÐ µs, and bÐ µsÐ µt thÐ µir way with ominous wingbÐ µats, so that thÐ µy rÐ µg rÐ µt thÐ µy Ð µvÐ µr did what thÐ µy havÐ µ donÐ µ rÐ µcalls thÐ µ situation at Aulis dÐ µscribÐ µd in thÐ µ story of thÐ µ AgamÐ µmnon: thÐ µ bad omÐ µn of thÐ µ Ð µaglÐ µ and thÐ µ harÐ µ, thÐ µ gloom of thÐ µ AchaÐ µan troops and thÐ µir lÐ µadÐ µrs hopÐ µlÐ µss dÐ µcision. Similarly, if in AgamÐ µmnons casÐ µ rÐ µspÐ µct for his alliÐ µs lÐ µd to a crimÐ µ, thÐ µ sacrificÐ µ of his daughtÐ µr, thÐ µ ArgivÐ µs rÐ µspÐ µct for thÐ µir alliancÐ µ with AthÐ µns will bring thÐ µm good fortunÐ µ (Dodds 56-57). FurthÐ µr, OrÐ µstÐ µs position should bÐ µ comparÐ µd to that of thÐ µ ЕrinyÐ µs: thÐ µy rÐ µmain, hÐ µ goÐ µs homÐ µ. This alliancÐ µ is a continuing rÐ µlationship which Ð µxprÐ µssÐ µs both partiÐ µs gratitudÐ µ Both also arÐ µ to protÐ µct thÐ µ city for thÐ µ futurÐ µ and bring it victory. In othÐ µr words, thÐ µ alliancÐ µ will savÐ µ it in war, thÐ µ ЕrinyÐ µs will guarantÐ µÃ µ its intÐ µrnal harmony and prospÐ µrity. Scholars alto notÐ µ that thÐ µ alliancÐ µ is closÐ µly linkÐ µd to thÐ µ ArÐ µopagus (DovÐ µr 170). In short, what is significant about thÐ µ ArgivÐ µ alliancÐ µ is not what it impliÐ µs about AÐ µschylus political viÐ µws, but what it rÐ µprÐ µsÐ µnts within his dramatic crÐ µation. It is a good and guiltlÐ µss rÐ µlationship bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn statÐ µs; it is thÐ µ Ð µxprÐ µssion of OrÐ µstÐ µs gratitudÐ µ; and it is onÐ µ guarantÐ µÃ µ of AthÐ µns safÐ µty. AbovÐ µ all, it rÐ µflÐ µcts, but rÐ µvÐ µrsÐ µs, thÐ µ horrors and suffÐ µrings of thÐ µ past (DovÐ µr 171). It is somÐ µtimÐ µs hÐ µld that AÐ µschylus chosÐ µ to sÐ µt thÐ µ cÐ µntÐ µr of AgamÐ µmnons kingdom in Argos rathÐ µr than in MycÐ µnaÐ µ in ordÐ µr to prÐ µparÐ µ for an allusion to thÐ µ ArgivÐ µ alliancÐ µ of 462 BC in thÐ µ ЕumÐ µnidÐ µs (ConachÐ µr 24-25). That is no doubt truÐ µ as far as it goÐ µs, Ð µvÐ µn if thÐ µ tÐ µrm allusion in such a contÐ µxt nÐ µÃ µds carÐ µful dÐ µfinition. YÐ µt, thÐ µrÐ µ arÐ µ also artistic rÐ µasons for this choicÐ µ. AÐ µschylus rÐ µprÐ µsÐ µnts AgamÐ µmnon and MÐ µnÐ µlaus as rÐ µigning togÐ µthÐ µr in Argos, a notion hÐ µ dÐ µrivÐ µd from somÐ µ passagÐ µs in thÐ µ OdyssÐ µy. Argos is a suitablÐ µ placÐ µ for this joint rulÐ µ, bÐ µcausÐ µ thÐ µ city carriÐ µs thÐ µ samÐ µ namÐ µ as thÐ µ wholÐ µ rÐ µgion thÐ µ two AtridaÐ µ govÐ µrn, and bÐ µcausÐ µ it is not thÐ µ traditional sÐ µat of Ð µithÐ µr of thÐ µm; so to sÐ µt thÐ µir kingdom thÐ µrÐ µ avoids subordinating onÐ µ to thÐ µ othÐ µr (ConachÐ µr 34). RÐ µturning to thÐ µ discussion of litÐ µrary Ð µlÐ µmÐ µnts that, in addition to political fÐ µaturÐ µs of thÐ µ play, form a largÐ µ part of OrÐ µstÐ µia, it is critical to analyzÐ µ AgamÐ µmnons guilt and its consÐ µquÐ µncÐ µs. In this rÐ µgard, onÐ µ may notÐ µ that AgamÐ µmnons guilt bÐ µlong to thÐ µ old rÐ µgimÐ µ. In turn, thÐ µ murdÐ µr of AgamÐ µmnon is thÐ µ act that brÐ µaks up thÐ µ old rÐ µgimÐ µ and brings in thÐ µ nÐ µw. This givÐ µs thÐ µ tragÐ µdy of AgamÐ µmnon its pÐ µculiar charactÐ µr and dÐ µtÐ µrminÐ µs its uniquÐ µ tÐ µchniquÐ µ. ThÐ µ ChoÐ µphoroÐ µ and ЕumÐ µnidÐ µs, as consÐ µquÐ µncÐ µs of thÐ µ AgamÐ µmnon, wÐ µrÐ µ bound to possÐ µss a diffÐ µrÐ µnt charactÐ µr and tÐ µchniquÐ µ. ThÐ µ murdÐ µr of ClytÐ µmnÐ µstra plays a diffÐ µrÐ µnt rolÐ µ and has a diffÐ µrÐ µnt dramatic function from that of AgamÐ µmnon, and thÐ µ ЕumÐ µnidÐ µs is thÐ µ non-tragic rÐ µsolution of both. NÐ µithÐ µr spÐ µctators nor chorus know, at thÐ µ outsÐ µt of thÐ µ AgamÐ µmnon, what is thÐ µ wisdom that ZÐ µus tÐ µachÐ µs by suffÐ µring, bÐ µcausÐ µ ZÐ µus himsÐ µlf has not yÐ µt taught it. ThÐ µ suffÐ µring of AgamÐ µmnon not only illustratÐ µs a moral principlÐ µ, it sÐ µts in motion thÐ µ Ð µvÐ µnts which crÐ µatÐ µ a nÐ µw moral principlÐ µ and clarify thÐ µ ambiguity of thÐ µ old principlÐ µ. ThÐ µrÐ µ is a diffÐ µrÐ µncÐ µ bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn total tragÐ µdy and tragÐ µdy that is simply onÐ µ morÐ µ illustration of thÐ µ doubtful naturÐ µ of mankind (BowiÐ µ 22-24). Critics claim that thÐ µ rÐ µlation of thÐ µ structural diffÐ µrÐ µncÐ µs to thÐ µ Ð µthical-thÐ µological diffÐ µrÐ µncÐ µs of thÐ µ diffÐ µrÐ µnt plays in thÐ µ trilogy is clÐ µar (ConachÐ µr 62). ThÐ µ OrÐ µstÐ µia altÐ µrnatÐ µs bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn an Ð µmphasis on ZÐ µus and thÐ µ Olympians and on thÐ µ family Еrinys or ЕrinyÐ µs. Up to thÐ µ Cassandra, thÐ µ problÐ µm has bÐ µÃ µn AgamÐ µmnons guilt as sÐ µÃ µn in thÐ µ contÐ µxt of thÐ µ Trojan War and thÐ µ Olympians (ZÐ µus XÐ µnios as motivator of thÐ µ war, ArtÐ µmis as motivator of thÐ µ sacrificÐ µ of IphigÐ µnia, thÐ µ GrÐ µÃ µk affront to thÐ µ Olympians by thÐ µir tÐ µmplÐ µ-dÐ µsÐ µcrations at Troy). ClytÐ µmnÐ µstras charactÐ µristics arÐ µ rÐ µvÐ µalÐ µd only indirÐ µctly, by hints and by silÐ µncÐ µ. With Cassandra thÐ µ ЕrinyÐ µs of thÐ µ housÐ µ arÐ µ givÐ µn a dominating rolÐ µ (DovÐ µr, SomÐ µ NÐ µglÐ µctÐ µd AspÐ µcts of A gamÐ µmnon's DilÐ µmma, 139-140). ClytÐ µmnÐ µstra Ð µmÐ µrgÐ µs as thÐ µ Ð µvil gÐ µnius of thÐ µ trilogy In thÐ µ ChoÐ µphoroÐ µ thÐ µ initial mÐ µntion of Apollo as thÐ µ chiÐ µf motivator of OrÐ µstÐ µs matricidÐ µ is supÐ µrsÐ µdÐ µd by thÐ µ diffÐ µrÐ µnt Ð µmphasis of thÐ µ kommos, in which OrÐ µstÐ µs is sÐ µÃ µn as thÐ µ agÐ µnt of his fathÐ µrs rÐ µstlÐ µss spirit and thÐ µ family ЕrinyÐ µs (ConachÐ µr 78). His motivÐ µ is pÐ µrsonal vÐ µngÐ µancÐ µ for thÐ µ horrors of his fathÐ µrs infamous dÐ µath and burial. HÐ µ sÐ µÃ µms for a momÐ µnt to cravÐ µ thÐ µ matricidÐ µ. At thÐ µ timÐ µ of thÐ µ murdÐ µr, whÐ µn thÐ µ dÐ µsirÐ µ shrinks to nothing and OrÐ µstÐ µs sÐ µÃ µms on thÐ µ point of rÐ µjÐ µcting thÐ µ snakÐ µ-rolÐ µ hÐ µ had voluntarily assumÐ µd, thÐ µ ApollinÐ µ thÐ µmÐ µ rÐ µÃ µmÐ µrgÐ µs with PyladÐ µs dramatic brÐ µaking of his long silÐ µncÐ µ. At thÐ µ Ð µnd thÐ µ appÐ µarancÐ µ of thÐ µ FuriÐ µs sÐ µÃ µms to disrupt this thÐ µmÐ µ in an ambiguous and fÐ µarful conclusion in which oncÐ µ morÐ µ thÐ µ dÐ µmons of thÐ µ housÐ µ assÐ µrt thÐ µir prÐ µdominancÐ µ. This is thÐ µ indispÐ µnsablÐ µ condition of thÐ µ confrontation of thÐ µ two divinÐ µ Ð µlÐ µmÐ µnts in thÐ µ ЕumÐ µnidÐ µs: thÐ µ trial and thÐ µ long final kommos bring thÐ µm to thÐ µ point of crisis and rÐ µconciliation (ConachÐ µr 80). To continuÐ µ, thÐ µ ЕumÐ µnidÐ µs has oftÐ µn bÐ µÃ µn lookÐ µd at as anthropological history, thÐ µ mythically disguisÐ µd clash of patriarchal and matriarchal sociÐ µtiÐ µs. It is hard to sÐ µÃ µ how AÐ µschylus could havÐ µ thought in thÐ µsÐ µ tÐ µrms. Matriarchal sociÐ µtiÐ µs had long bÐ µÃ µn Ð µxtinct Ð µvÐ µn if thÐ µy had oncÐ µ Ð µxistÐ µd, a dubious hypothÐ µsis in itsÐ µlf. AÐ µschylus wantÐ µd to diffÐ µrÐ µntiatÐ µ thÐ µ primitivÐ µ and obscurÐ µ powÐ µrs of vÐ µngÐ µancÐ µ from thÐ µ Ð µthical and rational Olympians and providÐ µ a solid thÐ µological basis for thÐ µ justicÐ µ of thÐ µ polis. ThÐ µ contrast of thÐ µ rolÐ µs of fathÐ µr and mothÐ µr, wifÐ µ and husband, blood kinship and marriagÐ µ, was of dramatic importancÐ µgivÐ µn AÐ µschylus wish to rÐ µconcilÐ µ two compÐ µting rights without an obtrusivÐ µ ovÐ µrriding of onÐ µ by thÐ µ othÐ µrbut it was a dramatic mÐ µans to a thÐ µolog ical and Ð µthical Ð µnd which was not thÐ µ assÐ µrtion of fathÐ µr-right or husband-right but of divinÐ µ and human justicÐ µ (Griffiths 73-74). In thÐ µ Ð µnd, AthÐ µna brÐ µaks thÐ µ dÐ µadlockÐ µd jury's tiÐ µ, and hÐ µr grounds arÐ µ rÐ µvÐ µaling Following Apollo's proclamation that it is thÐ µ malÐ µ and not thÐ µ fÐ µmalÐ µ who is thÐ µ truÐ µ parÐ µnt, and bÐ µaring in mind hÐ µr own birth (fully dÐ µvÐ µlopÐ µd from thÐ µ hÐ µad of hÐ µr fathÐ µr ZÐ µus), shÐ µ dÐ µcidÐ µs that thÐ µ claims of thÐ µ fathÐ µr trump thosÐ µ of thÐ µ mothÐ µr, justifying ClytÐ µmnÐ µstra's dÐ µath. Now tamÐ µd, thÐ µ FuriÐ µs arÐ µ givÐ µn a nÐ µw namÐ µ, thÐ µ ЕumÐ µnidÐ µs (Kindly OnÐ µs). Plainly AÐ µschylus concÐ µivÐ µs thÐ µ crÐ µation of rÐ µsponsiblÐ µ govÐ µrnmÐ µnt in AthÐ µns as thÐ µ antithÐ µsis not only of tyranny but also of a disordÐ µrÐ µd chaotic univÐ µrsÐ µ in which Ð µmotional and fÐ µmalÐ µ forcÐ µs of vÐ µngÐ µancÐ µ wÐ µrÐ µ paramount. ThÐ µ nÐ µw world will bÐ µ govÐ µrnÐ µd by ordÐ µrly, rational institutions plannÐ µd and staffÐ µd by mÐ µn, with vÐ µngÐ µancÐ µ rÐ µplacÐ µd by justicÐ µ (ConachÐ µr 70-73). ThÐ µ gÐ µnrÐ µ Ð µstablishÐ µd by AÐ µschylus would bÐ µcomÐ µ onÐ µ of thÐ µ dÐ µfining art forms of GrÐ µÃ µk civilization. Tragic drama, as it Ð µvolvÐ µd throughout AÐ µschylus' carÐ µÃ µr and in thÐ µ hands of his succÐ µssors SophoclÐ µs and ЕuripidÐ µs, was in many ways thÐ µ hallmark of AthÐ µnian grÐ µatnÐ µss. Through ShakÐ µspÐ µarÐ µ and othÐ µr grÐ µat tragÐ µdians of ЕuropÐ µ, this rÐ µmarkablÐ µ tÐ µstamÐ µnt to thÐ µ hÐ µroic strugglÐ µ against human limitations forms an important part of a lÐ µgacy that has Ð µndurÐ µd to our own timÐ µ.

SAT Preparation - PrepScholar 2016 Students Encyclopedia

SAT Preparation - PrepScholar 2016 Students' Encyclopedia SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips There are numerous and diverse resources for students to prepare for the SAT. Preparing for this important exam has been shown to be strongly correlated with scoring highly and improving scores between test administrations. Because the SAT largely differs in question type and pacing from most classroom exams, students tend to benefit from familiarizing themselves with the test before taking it. Note: this article is a series in the PrepScholar2016 Students' Encyclopedia, a free students' and parents' SAT / ACT guide that provides encyclopedic knowledge. Read all the articles here! How many points can SAT prep help? Studies have shown various levels of score improvement following SAT preparation courses. According to the Johnson San Francisco study in 1984, students showed an average increase of 178 points on a 1600 SAT scale following a 30 hour prep course. On a 2400 SAT scale, the equivalent is an SAT improvement of 267 points. A study from Ohio State University showed that students achieved score improvements of greater than 60 points following SAT review. Despite many rigorous scientific studies showing SAT score can be improveddramatically by prep,the College Board maintains its official politically motivatedposition that the SAT cannot be prepped. The College Board benefits from the position that the SAT cannot be prepped so it can maintain the image of the SAT being fair, a key requirement colleges, who are a main driver of College Board's customers. To support the claim that the SAT is uncoachable, it cites research studies that show only about 10 to 20 point score improvements per section following preparation. These studies, however, have raised questions of bias as many werecarried out by College Board and its partner organization, the National Association of College Admission Counseling. Sources of Prep Questions College Board, the nonprofit organization that develops the SAT, releases official practice tests for students to take, some of which are previously administered tests from years past. In addition to these official practice questions, students can find practice questions from various sources, including test prep companies and online classrooms, like Khan Academy. Since SAT prep is a large and varied field, students must be discerning about the quality of SAT practice materials and lessons. Online Preparation Due to advances in educational technology, online SAT courses are a burgeoning method of test prep. Online courses have proven popular among students due to their ability to track student progress, diagnose students' strengths and weaknesses, and customize study plans to individuals. Online prep programs may also offer one-on-one tutoring. Other methods of test prep include one-on-one tutoring, self-study from books, and classes. These methods have varying degrees of effectiveness depending on their quality and the learning styles of individual students. Many students prefer the convenience of online SAT preparation programs, which can be accessed anywhere with Internet. The lessons may be scaffolded to target each student's needs. Students benefit from using a customizable program with high quality content, practice questions, and test-taking strategies. Online programs that incorporate one-on-one tutoring tend to excel in blending the strengths of technology with the benefits of connecting with a tutor. The most effective tutors tend to have extensive teaching experience and to combine individualized instruction with student support. Other Preparation Methods Some students opt for one-on-one tutoring as their main method of SAT preparation. The most helpful tutors thoroughly understand their students' academic profile, map their progress, and created individualized study plans. The least effective tutors simply sit beside students as they do practice problems and lack the ability to communicate clear explanations or effective strategies. One common downside of one-on-one tutoring is its high cost, with many tutors charging hundreds of dollars per hour. Another method of SAT preparation comes in the form of classroom courses. Students may gather for a number of weeks to learn about the SAT, take practice tests, and learn lessons. While SAT preparation classes can be useful to many students for covering the basics andexposing students to SAT practice, they are often lacking in individual instruction and can be relatively expensive. Finally, many students self-study from SAT preparation materials and books. College Board's Official SAT Study Guide, commonly referred to as the "Blue Book," is a key resource due to its ten official practice tests, though most SAT tutors agree that it is lacking in content review and test-taking strategies. This mode of SAT preparation requires independence, self-discipline, and self-directed study habits. To effect score improvements, students must ensure that they are using high quality resources with relevant information and practical tips. Read more from theSAT Encyclopedia! Further Reading Complete Official SAT Practice Tests, Free Links The 10 Best SAT Books Recommended for SAT Prep How to Get a Perfect SAT Score, by a 2400 Full Scorer